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    armour of the forest, arboreal man's first form of domestic
    architecture.

    [Illustration (f083): Albert Dürer: Detail from 'The Prodigal Son.']

    The principle of structure here is just the same as the overlapping
    principle of the tiles and slates upon our ordinary house-roofs; but
    each leafy tile is different, being alive, and in the mass infinitely
    varied and beautiful in form and colour, instead of being mechanical and
    uniform, as we try to make our artificial roofs.

    [German Roofs]

    Very pretty and varied effects are produced in the old roofs of
    southern Germany by the use of different coloured glazed tiles--red,
    green, and yellow--arranged in simple patterns. One of the old towers at
    Lindau has such a roof, and the colour effect is very rich and striking.

    But I must not be led into a disquisition upon roofs further than in so
    far as they illustrate the subject of composition of line and form, and
    from the painter's point of view they frequently do in a very
    delightful and instructive way.

    [Illustration (f084): Albert Dürer: St. Anthony.]

    What, for instance, can be more varied and charming than the
    compositions we constantly meet with in the rich backgrounds of Albert
    Dürer? Those steep barn roofs, and those quaint German towns inclosed in
    walls with protecting towers--nests of steep tiled gables of every
    imaginable degree--which give so much character and interest to his
    designs, as in the background of his copper-plates "The Prodigal Son"
    and "St. Anthony" here given. Their prototypes still exist here and
    there in Germany, in such towns as Rothenburg, practically unchanged
    since the sixteenth century, and give one an excellent idea of what such
    houses were like. A visit there is like a leap back into the Middle
    Ages. Every street is a varied and interesting composition. No two
    houses are alike. They were built by the citizens to really pass their
    lives in. The town is strongly placed upon the crest of a hill, with a
    river at its foot, and well fortified and protected by massive
    encircling walls and towers and deep gates, which give it so strong and
    picturesque a character, while the timber and tile-roofed gallery for
    the warders still exists along the inside of the walls. Such cities
    arose by the strength of the social bond among men--the necessity for
    mutual help in the maintenance of a higher standard of life, and mutual
    protection against the ravages of sinister powers.

    [The Mediæval City]

    Strong externally, internally they were made as home-like and full of
    the varied delight of the eyes, as if the people had reasoned, "Since we
    must live close together in a small place, let us make it as delightful
    and romantic as we can." We know that the idea of Paradise and the New
    Jerusalem to the imagination of the Middle Ages was always the fair
    walled garden and the fenced city. The painters embodied the idea of
    security and protection from the savage and destructive forces of nature
    and man--a sanctuary of peace, a garden of delight.

    [Illustration (f085): Roof-lines: Rothenburg.]

    We have in modern times turned rather from the city as a complete and
    beautiful thing, to the individual home, and to the interior of that,
    and, in the modern competitive search for the necessary straws and
    sticks to make our individualist-domestic composition of comfort and
    artistic completeness, bowers are too often built upon the ruins of
    others, or are fair by reason of surrounding degradation. The common
    collective comfort and delight of the eyes is too often ignored, so that
    it comes about that, if our modern cities possess any elements of beauty
    or picturesqueness, it is rather owing to accidents and to the
    transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the beauty or variety of
    architectural form and colour. We have to seek inspiration among the
    fragments of the dead past in monuments and art schools.

    [Organic and Accidental Beauty]

    The modern development of the municipality and extension of its
    functions may, indeed, do something, as it has done, and is doing,
    something to protect public health and further public education; but we
    have yet to wait for the full results, and everything must finally
    depend upon the public spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens, and
    in matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat rare and peculiar
    sympathy and taste, as well as enthusiasm.

    The absence of beauty of line, form, and proportion from the external
    aspects of daily life in towns has probably a greater effect than we are
    apt to realize in deadening the imagination, and it certainly seems to
    produce a certain insensibility to beauty of line and composition, since
    the perception must necessarily be blunted by being inured to the
    commonplace and sordid. The instinct for harmony of line and form
    becomes weakened, and can only be slowly revived by long and careful
    study in art, instead of finding its constant and most vital stimulus in
    every street.

    For all that, however, an eye trained to observe and select may, even in
    the dullest and dingiest street, find artistic suggestions, if not in
    the buildings, then in the life. And where there is life, movement,
    humanity, there is sure to be character and interest. Groups of children
    playing will give us plenty of suggestions for figure composition.
    Workpeople going to and from their work, the common works going on in
    the street, the waggons and horses, the shoal of faces, the ceaseless
    stream of life--all these things, whether we are able to reproduce them
    as direct illustrations of the life of our time, or are moved only to
    select from them vivid suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions,
    should all be noted--photographed, as it were, instantaneously upon the
    sensitive plate of the mind's vision. We can only learn the laws of
    movement by observing movement--the swing and poise of the figure, the
    relation of the lines of limbs and drapery to the direction of force and
    centre of gravity, so important in composition. We must constantly
    supplement our school and studio work by these direct impressions of
    vivid life and movement, and neglect no opportunity or despise no source
    or suggestion.

    There are still in England to be found such old-world corners as the
    quaint street of Canterbury (p. 153[f086]), which forms an excellent
    study in the composition of angular and vertical lines.

    [Illustration (f086): St. Margaret St Canterbury Aug: 27 1894]

    [Formal Composition]

    We may perceive that there are at least two kinds of composition, which
    may be distinguished as:

    I. Formal.
    II. Informal.

    I. Under the head of Formal may be classed all those systems of
    structural line with which I started, and which are found either as
    leading motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout ornamental
    design. Yet even these may be used in composition of figures and other
    forms where the object is more or less formal and decorative, as
    governing plans or controlling lines.

    The radiating ribs of a fan, for instance, might be utilized as the
    natural boundaries and inclosing lines of a series of vertical figures
    following the radiating lines. A strictly logical design of the kind
    would be a series of figures with uplifted arms, forming radiating lines
    from the shoulders, somewhat in the position of Blake's well-known and
    beautiful composition of the Morning Stars in the Book of Job, already
    illustrated.

    Using the overlapping vertical scale plan we should get relative
    positions for a formal composition of three figures, although they need
    not necessarily be formal in detail. A typical design of three
    associated ideas treated emblematically would be the most natural use of
    such an arrangement--as Faith, Hope, and Charity; Liberty, Equality,
    Fraternity; Science, Art, and Industry; or the three goddesses Heré,
    Pallas, and Aphrodite, as choice and purpose might decide. A
    semicircular scale plan would not only repeat in a safe and sound
    manner, but would afford suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of
    figures, and could be effectively utilized either for a wall or ceiling
    repeat.

    The inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives a graceful ornamental
    shape for a half-reclining figure; while a series of floating or flying
    figures linking their hands would be appropriately governed by similar
    spiral lines, uniting them with the meandering wave line (see
    illustration, p. 155[f087]).

    [Illustration (f087): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
    Geometric Boundaries.]

    Upon a series of semicircles or ellipses, alternating horizontally,
    might be arranged a little frieze of children with skipping ropes, or
    Amorini with pendent garlands; the up-and-down movement in the former
    case being conveyed by a variation, each alternate semicircle being
    struck upwards. This would restore the emphatic wave or spiral line,
    which always conveys the sense of rhythmic movement in a design.

    Such a line, vertically employed, will give again a good plan for a
    series of seated figures, say emblematic of the Hours, where similarity
    of attitude and type would be appropriate, while the emblems and
    accessories might be varied. A severer treatment would be suggested by
    making the controlling line angular (see illustration, p. 156[f088]).

    [Illustration (f088): Formal Composition: Figure Designs Controlled by
    Geometric Boundaries.]

    Such are a few illustrations of what I have termed formal composition,
    in which the geometric and structural plans of pure ornament or
    ornamental line maybe utilized to combine, control, or even suggest
    figure designs.

    [Informal Composition]

    II. While formal compositions, though naturally falling into classes and
    types, may be varied to a very great extent, when we come to informal
    compositions the variations are unlimited, and a vista of extraordinary
    and apparently endless choice, invention, and selection opens out before
    the designer, co-extensive with the variety of nature herself.

    In seeking harmonious and expressive composition in the pictorial
    direction the guides are much less definite and secure. Individual
    feeling and instinct, which must have an important influence in all
    kinds of designing, are in this direction paramount. Yet even here, if
    we look beneath the apparent freedom and informality, we find certain
    laws at work which seem to differ only in degree from the more definite
    and constructive control of line which we have been considering. In the
    first place, there are our direct impressions from nature; and,
    secondly, our conscious aims and efforts to express an idea in our
    minds. We have the same restricted and definite forms of language and
    materials in each case--line, form, space, brushes, pencil, colour,
    paper, canvas, or clay. We are taken by some particular scene: the
    composition of line and form at a particular spot attracts us more than
    another. We do not stop as a rule to ask why, since it usually takes all
    our time and our best skill to get into shape what we are seeking--and
    carry away with us an artistic record of the place. We have seen that in
    the case of certain natural structures, shells, leaves, flowers, the
    fundamental structural lines are so beautiful that they not only form
    ornament in themselves, but furnish the basis for whole types and
    families of ornament. When we look at a landscape, putting aside for the
    moment all the surface charms of colour and effect, and concentrating
    our attention upon its lines of structures, we shall find that it owes a
    great part of its beauty to the harmonious relation of its leading
    lines, or to certain pleasant contrasts, or a certain impressiveness of
    form and mass, and at the same time we shall perceive that this linear
    expression is inseparable from the sentiment or emotion suggested by
    that particular scene.

    A gentle southern landscape--undulating downs, and wandering
    sheep-walks; the soft rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth cropped
    turf--all these are so many notes or words in the language of line and
    form which go to express the idea of pastoral life. They are
    inextricably bound up with inseparable associations conveyed by such
    lines and forms. The undulating lines of resting or dancing figures
    would only give point, true emphasis, and variety, and a note of
    contrast in the forms would serve to bring out the general sentiment
    more strongly.

    Substitute rugged rocks, swollen torrents, wind-tossed trees and stormy
    skies, and all is changed. Such things cannot be expressed without much
    more emphatic lines and masses, and the use of opposing angles and
    energetic curves of movement which would be destructive of the sentiment
    of peace, in other cases. Yet even then to convey the expression of
    energy and rapid movement, concerted groups of lines are none the less
    necessary (see illustration, p. 159[f089]).

    [Illustration (f089): Informal Composition: Expression of (1) Storm and
    (2) Calm In Landscape.]

    Such comparisons indicate not only that there is a necessary
    association of ideas with certain lines and forms, but also that certain
    relations and associations of line of a similar character are necessary
    to produce a harmonious composition, and one which conveys a definite
    and pervading sentiment or emotion, just as we saw that the controlling
    lines of structural curves, spirals, and angles require to be in
    relation, and to be re-echoed by the character of the design they
    inclose or which is built upon them.

    The same law holds true in figure composition. The sense of repose and
    restfulness necessary to sitting or reclining groups depends upon the
    gentle declivities of the curves and their gradual descent to the
    horizontal.

    [Illustration (f090): Informal Composition: Expression of Repose and
    Action.]

    Draw a figure sitting rigid, tense, and alert, and you destroy the sense
    of repose at once, and you are obliged also to resort to angles, still
    more emphatic where strong action is to be expressed; while to express
    continual or progressive movement, a choice of associated lines of
    action in different stages of progress leading up to the crescendo of
    the final one (as in a group of mowers) would be necessary (see
    illustrations, p. 161[f090]). We cannot, then, in any composition have
    too definite a conception. We must, at any sacrifice of detail, bring
    out the main expression and meaning. Every group of figures must be in
    the strictest relation to each other and to the central interest or
    expression of the design. You cannot, for instance, in a procession of
    figures, make your faces turn all sorts of ways without stopping the
    onward movement which is essential to the idea of a procession. This
    would not preclude variety, but the general tendency must be in one
    direction. Every line in a composition must lead up to the central idea,
    and be subordinated or contributory to it (see illustration, Nos. 1 and
    2, p. 163[f091a]).

    [Illustration (f091a): (1) and (2) Movement in a Procession]

    The same with masses: you cannot put a number of forms together without
    some sort of relation, either of general character and contour or some
    uniting line. We may learn this principle from nature also. Look at a
    heap of broken stones and débris, which in detail may contain all sorts
    of varieties of form, as we find them tumbled down a steep place, as the
    rocky bed of a mountain stream, a heap of boulders upon a hillside, or
    the débris from a quarry or mine; in each case the law of gravity and
    the persistence of force working together arrange the diverse forms in
    masses controlled by the lines, which express the direction and degree
    of descent, and the pressure of force. The same thing may be seen on any
    hilly ground after heavy rain; the scattered pebbles are arranged in
    related groups, combined and composed by the flow of miniature streams,
    which channel the face of the ground and form hollows for their
    reception (see Nos. 3 and 4, p. 163[f091b]). The force of the tides and
    currents upon the sea-shore illustrates the same principle and affords
    us magnificent lessons in composition, not only in the delicate lines
    taken by the sculptured sand, but in the harmonious grouping of masses
    of shingle and shells, weeds and drift, arranged by the movement of the
    waves.

    [Illustration (f091b): (3) Lines Left by a Watercourse, (4) Lines
    Governing Fallen Débris from a Quarry.]

    [Principles of Harmonious Composition]

    So that we may see that the principles of harmonious composition are not
    the outcome of merely capricious fancy or pedantic rule, but are
    illustrated throughout the visible world by the laws and forces of the
    material universe. It is for the artist to observe and apply them in his
    own work of re-creation.




    CHAPTER VII

    Of the Relief of Form--Three Methods--Contrast--Light and Shade,
    and Modelling--The Use of Contrast and Planes in Pattern
    Designing--Decorative Relief--Simple Linear Contrast--Relief by
    Linear Shading--Different Emphasis in relieving Form by Shading
    Lines--Relief by means of Light and Shade alone without
    Outline--Photographic Projection--Relief by different Planes and
    Contrasts of Concave and Convex Surfaces in Architectural
    Mouldings--Modelled Relief--Decorative Use of Light and Shade,
    and different Planes in Modelling and Carving--Egyptian System of
    Relief Sculpture--Greek and Gothic Architectural Sculpture,
    influenced by Structural and Ornamental Feeling--Sculptural
    Tombs, Medals, Coins, Gems--Florentine Fifteenth-century
    Reliefs--Desideriodi Settignano.


    We come now to the consideration of the various means and methods of
    expressing relief in line and form.

    We may define a form in outline and give it different qualities of
    expression by altering the quality and consistency of our outline, and
    we may obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by the use of
    lines of various degrees of thickness or thinness; but if we want to
    give it force and colour, and to distinguish it from its background more
    emphatically, we must add to our outline.

    [Three Methods of Expressing Relief]

    There are three principal methods or systems of giving relief by adding
    to our outline.

    One is the method of giving relief to form by contrasts of tone, colour,
    or tint.

    Another by means of the expression of light and shade: and the third by
    means of modelling in relief.

    Now, still keeping to expression by means of line, the three arms I have
    sketched (p. 167[f092]) illustrate: (1) the form in outline alone; (2)
    the contrast method; and (3) the light and shade method. The three pots
    underneath illustrate the same three stages in a simpler manner.

    In number one we see the outline defining the form pure and simple: in
    number two the form is relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines,
    forming a plane or background behind it. The arm is still further
    relieved by the dark drapery. Number three shows the relief carried
    further by lines expressive of the modelling of the arm and the rounding
    of the pot, and also by cast shadows from the forms.

    [Illustration (f092): The Relief of Form: (1) By Outline, (2) By
    Contrast, (3) By Light and Shade.]

    The system of expressing relief I have termed relief by contrast
    includes two kinds of contrast: there are the contrasts of line and
    form, and there are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local
    colour. We may consider that the contrast method covers generally all
    forms of pattern and certain kinds of pictorial design. The method of
    expressing relief by means of line covers generally all forms of design
    in black and white, graphic sketching, pen-drawing, and work with the
    point of all kinds.

    [Of the Use of Contrast and Planes]

    Taking the principle of contrast as applied to pattern design, we can,
    even within the limited range of black and white and half-tint (as
    expressed by lines), get a considerable amount of decorative effect. In
    the first place by bringing out our pattern, previously outlined, upon
    a black ground (as in Nos. 1 and 2, p. 169[f093]), increasing the
    richness of effect, and getting a second plane by treating the lower
    part in an open tint of line.

    Simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon dark are effective,
    and sufficient for many purposes, such as borders (as in Nos. 2 and 3,
    p. 169[f093]).

    When a lighter kind of relief and effect is required, the recurring
    forms in a border are often sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open
    lines: movement and variety being given by making them follow the minor
    curves of the successive forms, as in this instance (No 4, p. 169[f093])
    the movement of the water is suggested behind the fish.

    The relation of the plain ground-work to the figure of the pattern is
    also an important point; indeed the plain parts of the pattern, or the
    interstices and intervals of the pattern, are as essential to the
    pattern as the figured parts.

    In designs intended for various processes of manufacture, such as
    printed or woven textiles, wall-papers, etc., where blocks or rollers
    are used to repeat the pattern, the extent of plain in proportion to
    figured parts must be governed in some measure by the practicable size
    of the repeat: but within certain limits great variety of proportion is
    possible.

    A simple but essentially decorative principle is to

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